Some constructions of
In the late 19th century, Cartan and Killing classified the complex simple Lie algebras (and with them the complex resp. compact simple Lie groups).1 They obtained four infinite series
Enter the octonions!2 As it turns out, the (compact, real) Lie group
Today, I will depart from the octonionic setting and showcase an elementary construction of the Lie algebra
Deconstructing
In order to build up
Yes, yes, algebraists, I hear your sighs - why not work over an algebraically closed field? Fair enough. Reject real vector spaces, we complexify. So from now on, let
Every Lie algebra
Restricting this representation to the subalgebra
What are the low-dimensional (complex) irreducible representations of
However, adjoint representations of simple Lie algebras are always self-dual. In particular this holds for
So far, so good - nothing here that any decent standard reference or computer algebra system on representation theory can’t already tell us. Indeed, here’s the output of LiE on the matter:
> setdefault(G2)
> rm=res_mat(A2)
> branch(adjoint,A2,rm)
1X[0,1] +1X[1,0] +1X[1,1]
The setdefault
tells LiE which Lie algebra to use for all subsequent function calls; the Lie algebra res_mat
looks up a restriction matrix that tells us how branch
command performs the branching and spits out a sum of three parts. These representations are denoted by their highest weights, a useful device in Lie theory – but even without knowing anything about weights, we can do a bit of prodding
> setdefault(A2)
> dim([0,1])
3
> contragr([0,1])
[1,0]
> adjoint
1X[1,1]
and learn that [0,1]
and [1,0]
are three-dimensional representations of [1,1]
is the adjoint representation. This confirms
Reconstructing
Now that we know what
We would like our bracket to be completely
Because a Lie bracket is alternating,
We may construct a bilinear map
All that remains now is to find the right parameters
Jacobian juggling
As mentioned earlier, because the bracket constructed to far is
Returning to the Jacobi identity on
We can play the same game on
For
The finishing touches
In the last section, we saw how the seemingly daunting task of constructing an exceptional Lie algebra gets reduced to an equation in three variables by applying invariance principles. Now what we have actually obtained is not just one Lie bracket, but an entire family of them, depending on parameters
We know that the actual Lie bracket of
Suppose first that one of the parameters is zero: say
An arbitrary choice for
The root system of type
Recall that all of the above relied on the fact that
The most vital step in the classification of Cartan and Killing was to notice that a semisimple Lie algebra can be completely encoded in a combinatorial object called its root system. Let
Such a Cartan subalgebra turns out to always exist, and they all have the same dimension. The invariant
Moreover every Cartan algebra
The monumental achievement of Killing and Cartan was to develop the theory of root systems, to show that every semisimple Lie algebra is determined by its root system, and to classify the root systems! Each one is a product of simple root systems, which in turn come in four infinite families
Here is the root system of type
For this depiction we have utilized that all roots lie in a real subspace of
Let us now take a look at the root system of
Notice that the
In a semisimple Lie algebra
Now the subalgebra
Constructions of from other subalgebras
In general, not every subalgebra of a semisimple Lie algebra
The (complex) Lie algebra
For a direct sum of Lie algebras, the root system is just the Cartesian product of the root system of the factors:
If you squish it a bit, it fits inside the root system of type
If you wonder what the branching of the adjoint representation to this subalgebra looks like, here you go:
One thing to mention about this subalgebra that it corresponds to an
The subalgebras
The
This was a long post. Time to rest.
Footnotes
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The story of how
was discovered and how the Cartan–Killing classification came to be is fascinating. Two great accounts are given in:I. Agricola: Old and new on the exceptional group
. Notices Amer. Math. Soc. 55 (8), 922-929 (2008);A. J. Coleman: The greatest mathematical paper of all time, The Mathematical Intelligencer 11, 29–38 (1989). ↩
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The octonions are the last of the four real division algebras (
), and the only non-associative one. They are called “octonions” because they have dimension 8 over . It is said that they are responsible for the existence of many “exceptional” or “sporadic” objects in mathematics – that is, objects which appear in classifications as more or less isolated entities, without belonging to an infinite family of related objects. A by now standard reference on the octonions and their consequences is:J. C. Baez: The Octonions, Bull. Amer. Math. Soc. 39, 145-205 (2002). Errata in Bull. Amer. Math. Soc. 42, 213 (2005). ↩
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Here’s roughly how to do it: Let
be some imaginary unit octonion, and let be the stabilizer of inside . Then must preserve the 6-dimensional real subspace , and is determined by its action on it. That is, it injects into . Now it is a fact that algebra automorphisms of preserve the inner product, that (left-)multiplication by is a complex structure on , which is preserved by , and that the canonical three-form restricted to is a holomorphic volume form. Thus .To see the reverse inclusion, one can either calculate that every element of
gives an automorphism of preserving . Or, more elegantly, one may use the geometric fact that acts transitively on the 6-sphere (the unit sphere in ), thus the stabilizer of a point must have dimension , which is that of . Since is already connected, necessarily ! ↩ -
I’ve often seen discussions on how to interpret the Jacobi identity. In my opinion, this is the simplest and most useful algebraic interpretation; to get a geometric one, we integrate this one twice and see that Jacobi infinitesimally encodes conjugation being a group action. ↩
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As a matter of fact, every representation of
is self-dual, but I forgot how to prove it. ↩ -
This particular construction of the bracket of
is thoroughly detailed in §22.2 of my most prized possession:W. Fulton, J. Harris: Representation Theory: A First Course, Graduate Texts in Mathematics 129, Springer (2004).
However, it discusses first the root system of
and uses it to infer the bracket, while this post tries to showcase the construction purely intrinsically. ↩ -
This way of dividing differential forms is legitimate since they live in a one-dimensional vector space. Now there are actually people who use this as a justification to argue that of course,
is a fraction (if is a differentiable function of one variable). While technically true once one has jumped through the hoop of learning exterior calculus, I’ll leave it to you to decide whether this is a good didactical approach for first-time students of (ordinary) calculus… ↩ -
Oh yeah, complex numbers, right. The cube roots have to be chosen such that
. ↩ -
Similar to groups, there are basically two “worlds” of Lie algebras: the solvable ones and the semisimple ones. A Lie algebra
is called semisimple if has no solvable ideals. By the Levi decomposition theorem every Lie algebra over can be written as a semidirect product of a semisimple subalgebra and a solvable ideal. Every semisimple Lie algebra is isomorphic to a sum of simple ideals (simple = no nontrivial ideals at all). ↩ -
Don’t worry, there exists a canonical inner product on the root lattice making this precise. This allows us to think of a root system as living in some Euclidean space. ↩
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Symmetric spaces are the best-behaved homogeneous spaces, in a sense. Roughly, a symmetric space is a manifold which has a reflection symmetry through each point. This implies that it has a transitive group
of symmetries and can thus be written as a homogeneous space , where is the stabilizer of a point. If is a symmetric space, with a -invariant decomposition of the adjoint representation , then the bracket relation is satisfied. Conversely, any homogeneous space with this property is symmetric. ↩ -
C. Draper, F. J. Palomo: Reductive homogeneous spaces of the compact Lie group
, in: Non-Associative Algebras and Related Topics NAART II, Springer Proceedings in Mathematics & Statistics 427, Springer, 2023. ↩ -
J. Dixmier: Certaines algèbres non associatives simples définies par la transvection des formes binaires, J. Reine Angew. Math. 346, 110–128 (1984). ↩
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M. Bremner, I. Hentzel: Invariant nonassociative algebra structures on irreducible representations of simple Lie algebras, Experiment. Math. 13 (2), 231-256 (2004). ↩
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How the principal subalgebra
, or rather its real form , fits together with the octonion multiplication, resp. the cross product on , has also been mused about in the n-Category Café: see here, here and here. Thanks to John Baez for taking interest in this question! ↩