In the late 19th century, Cartan and Killing classified the complex simple Lie algebras (and with them the complex resp. compact simple Lie groups).1 They obtained four infinite series An,Bn,Cn,Dn, as well as the four exceptional Lie groups E6,E7,E8,F4,G2 (here the subscript indicates the so-called rank). The classification relies on reducing the structure of a simple Lie algebra to that of its root system, and then classifying these. Root system are systems of vectors in a finite-dimensional Euclidean space, satisfying certain very restrictive properties. We will get back to these later – for now, it suffices to note that any simple Lie algebra may be reconstructed from its root system. In particular, this makes it possible to construct the exceptional Lie algebras e6,e7,e8,f4,g2. The smallest of them, g2, has dimension 14. However, these Lie algebras remain somewhat mysterious, and one cannot help but wonder about their geometric meaning.

Enter the octonions!2 As it turns out, the (compact, real) Lie group G2 may be succinctly described as their automorphism group, that is G2=AutO={fGL(O)|f(xy)=f(x)f(y)x,yO}. Its Lie algebra g2 hence consists of “infinitesimal automorphisms”, i.e. derivations of O: g2=der(O)={Agl(O)|A(xy)=A(x)y+xA(y)x,yO}. When dealing with the geometry of G2 or its subgroups, the octonionic picture is often helpful. For example, the subgroup SU(3)G2 may be defined as the stabilizer of some imaginary octonion (and consequentially, the subalgebra su(3)g2 as its annihilator).

Today, I will depart from the octonionic setting and showcase an elementary construction of the Lie algebra g2 that does not use any Lie-theoretic machinery like roots or Dynkin diagrams – although we will see later on that the whole construction can be elegantly predicted by looking at the root system of g2.

Deconstructing g2

In order to build up g2, first we have to break it down. We take it as a given that su(3) is a subalgebra of g2 – this can be either shown elegantly in the octonionic picture3 or read off from the root system.

Yes, yes, algebraists, I hear your sighs - why not work over an algebraically closed field? Fair enough. Reject real vector spaces, we complexify. So from now on, let g2 denote the complex simple Lie algebra. The complexification of su(3) is sl(3,C). So we may write (1)g2sl(3,C)W, where W is some 6-dimensional complex vector space.

Every Lie algebra g acts on itself via its Lie bracket: this is called the adjoint representation, ad:ggl(g),(adx)y:=[x,y], and the Jacobi identity (2)[x,[y,z]]+[y,[z,x]]+[z,[x,y]]=0 for all x,y,zg ensures that ad is in fact a representation.4

Restricting this representation to the subalgebra sl(3,C)g2, we may assume that splitting (1) is sl(3,C)-invariant (because this Lie algebra is reductive). In particular, W is a 6-dimensional representation of sl(3,C).

What are the low-dimensional (complex) irreducible representations of sl(3,C)? Lie theory guarantees that there’s the trivial one in dimension 1, the standard representation C3 and its dual (C3) in dimension 3, the adjoint representation in dimension 8, and all others have larger dimension. Note that C3 and (C3) are not equivalent! So a priori there’s several possibilities what W could be: either two copies of C3 resp. (C3), or the sum C3(C3).

However, adjoint representations of simple Lie algebras are always self-dual. In particular this holds for g2,5 and this doesn’t change when we restrict the representation to a subalgebra. In addition to self-dual part sl(3,C), the complement W must be self-dual as well – and this leaves only the last of the above possibilities. That is, as a representation of the subalgebra sl(3,C), we have (3)g2sl(3,C)C3(C3). What we just did is called branching in representation theory – understanding how a representation of a Lie group/algebra behaves under restriction to a subgroup/subalgebra.

So far, so good - nothing here that any decent standard reference or computer algebra system on representation theory can’t already tell us. Indeed, here’s the output of LiE on the matter:

> setdefault(G2)
> rm=res_mat(A2)
> branch(adjoint,A2,rm)
     1X[0,1] +1X[1,0] +1X[1,1]

The setdefault tells LiE which Lie algebra to use for all subsequent function calls; the Lie algebra A2 is precisely sl(3,C); the command res_mat looks up a restriction matrix that tells us how sl(3,C) sits inside g2; and finally, the branch command performs the branching and spits out a sum of three parts. These representations are denoted by their highest weights, a useful device in Lie theory – but even without knowing anything about weights, we can do a bit of prodding

> setdefault(A2)
> dim([0,1])
     3
> contragr([0,1])
     [1,0]
> adjoint
     1X[1,1]

and learn that [0,1] and [1,0] are three-dimensional representations of sl(3,C) which are each other’s duals (or contragredients, if you insist on using fancy words), while [1,1] is the adjoint representation. This confirms (3)!

Reconstructing g2

Now that we know what g2 looks like as a representation of its subalgebra sl(3,C), we would like to construct its Lie bracket – not in terms of octonions or root vectors, but in terms of decomposition (3). That is, we need to define an alternating bilinear form g2×g2g2,(x,y)[x,y] satisfying the Jacobi identity. And it should please restrict to the Lie bracket on sl(3,C), and to the action on the complement: that is (4)[X,Y]=[X,Y]sl(3,C)X,Ysl(3,C)(5)[X,v]=XvXsl(3,C), vC3,(6)[X,α]=αXXsl(3,C), α(C3). So far this is just restating the decomposition (3). Now comes the fun part: reconstructing the missing parts of the bracket.6

We would like our bracket to be completely sl(3,C)-invariant. This is not only equivalent to the Jacobi identity (2) where any one of x,y,z lies in sl(3,C), but also heavily restricts the choices we can make. For instance, recall the following: SL(3,C) is the group of complex 3×3-matrices which have determinant equal to 1, or equivalently, which preserve any nonzero three-form ωΛ3(C3) (which we may call the volume form). This volume form gives an sl(3,C)-equivalence ω:Λ2C3(C3),vwω(vw):=ω(v,w,), and dually, we have an equivalence ω:C3Λ3(C3),vω(v):=vω=ω(v,,). In particular, C3Λ2C3(C3) – so there is no nontrivial alternating bilinear form C3×C3C3! We may apply similar considerations to other combinations of spaces in decomposition (3), and find that the only nontrivial contributions besides (4)(6) can come from (7)C3×C3(C3),(8)(C3)×(C3)C3,(9)C3×(C3)sl(3,C),(10)(C3)×C3sl(3,C). Schur’s Lemma tells us that any two equivalence of irreducible complex representations are multiples of each other – in particular, the only choices we have for (7) and (8) are (11)[v,w]=aω(v,w,)v,wC3,(12)[α,β]=bω1(αβ)α,β(C3) for some parameters a,bC.

Because a Lie bracket is alternating, (10) must simply be the negative of (9). It remains to construct (9), and again Schur’s Lemma guarantees that there is (up to a factor) only one way to do this.

We may construct a bilinear map C3×(C3)gl(3,C) by sending (v,α)vα,(vα)w:=α(w)v for v,wC3 and α(C3) (for my notation to make sense, imagine v as a column and α as a row vector). This is perfectly sl(3,C)-invariant, but the result has a trace which we need to cancel out in order to land in sl(3,C) (the space of traceless complex 3×3-matrices). The trace of vαgl(3,C) is exactly given by α(v), so the bracket should look like (13)[v,α]=c(vα13α(v)id3×3) for some cC.

All that remains now is to find the right parameters a,b,c that verify the Jacobi identity.

Jacobian juggling

As mentioned earlier, because the bracket constructed to far is sl(3,C)-invariant, it satisfies the Jacobi identity (2) whenever at least one of the elements x,y,z is in sl(3,C). By trilinearity and the cyclic nature of the Jacobi identity, it remains to show it for the parts C3×C3×C3,C3×C3×(C3),C3×(C3)×(C3),(C3)×(C3)×(C3). Let’s do them one by one. For u,v,wC3, plugging our definitions (11) & (13) of the bracket into (2) yields [u,[v,w]]+[v,[w,u]]+[w,[u,v]]=a([u,ω(vw)]+[v,ω(wu)]+[w,ω(uv)])=ac(uω(vw)+vω(wu)+wω(uv)13(ω(v,w,u)+ω(w,u,v)+ω(u,v,w))id3×3)(14)=ac(uω(vw)+vω(wu)+wω(uv)ω(u,v,w)id3×3), using the antisymmetry of ω in the last step. Hm, that looks messy. But taking a step back and looking at the involved symmetries helps! Notice first that the left hand side of the Jacobi identity (2) is a cyclic sum (that is, we sum over all cyclic permutations of the arguments) over the double bracket [,[,]]gΛ2g. I shall leave it to the reader to check that taking the cyclic sum over a tensor which is (anti-)symmetric in any two arguments results in a tensor that is fully (anti-)symmetric. In this particular case, the cyclic sum maps gΛ2gΛ3g. This means that the left hand side of (2) depends only on the trivector xyz.

Returning to the Jacobi identity on C3×C3×C3, we now know that the left hand side of (14) depends only on uvwΛ3C3 – which is one-dimensional! We might as well choose a basis (e1,e2,e3) of C3 such that, with the dual basis (e1,e2,e3), the volume form is simple ω=e1e2e3, and then we can write uvw=ω(u,v,w)e1e2e3. And combining this with (14), we obtain [u,[v,w]]+[v,[w,u]]+[w,[u,v]]=acω(u,v,w)(e1ω(e2e3)+e2ω(e3e1)+e3ω(e1e2)id3×3)(15)=acω(u,v,w)(e1e1+e2e2+e3e3id3×3)=0 because id3×3=ieiei.

We can play the same game on (C3)×(C3)×(C3). For any α,β,γ(C3), the three-form αβγΛ3(C3) must be proportional to ω because Λ3(C3) is one-dimensional. Thus we may write7 αβγ=αβγωe1e2e3. Plugging this into (2) and using the definitions (12) & (13), we find [α,[β,γ]]+[β,[γ,α]]+[γ,[α,β]]=bαβγω([e1,ω1(e2e3)]+[e2,ω1(e3e1)]+[e3,ω1(e1e2)])=bαβγω([e1,e1]+[e2,e2]+[e3,e3])(16)=bcαβγω(e1e1+e2e2+e3e31+1+13id3×3)=0. Notice how the vanishing of these terms does not actually depend on the values of a,b,c. This will change once we start mixing representations.

For v,wC3 and α(C3), we use (11), (13) & (5) to calculate [v,[w,α]]+[w,[α,v]]+[α,[v,w]]=c[v,wα13α(w)id3×3]c[w,vα13α(v)id3×3]+a[α,ω(vw)](17)=4c3(α(w)vα(v)w)+abω1(αω(vw)). To simplify this further, we may apply the isomorphism ω:C3Λ2(C3) and rewrite a bit to obtain (18)4c3(α(w)(vω)α(v)(wω))+abα(wvω). Now, let’s put to use some classical identities, in this case that the interior product v always acts as an antiderivation for the exterior product, i.e. u(ξη)=(uξ)η+(1)degξξ(uη)uV, ξ,ηΛV (where V is any vector space). Using this, we may calculate (19)wv(αω)=w(α(v)ωα(vω))=α(v)(wω)α(w)(vω)+α(wvω). But αω is a four-form on C3 – meaning it, and thus the left hand side of (19), must be zero! Using this identity, we can rewrite (18) into (4c3+ab)α(wvω), and since ω is nondegenerate this can only vanish identically for all v,w,α if (20)4c3+ab=0. The calculation for the last remaining triple C3×(C3)×(C3) works similarly, only reversing the roles of C3 and (C3). I’ll leave it as an exercise to show that it yields the same condition (20).

The finishing touches

In the last section, we saw how the seemingly daunting task of constructing an exceptional Lie algebra gets reduced to an equation in three variables by applying invariance principles. Now what we have actually obtained is not just one Lie bracket, but an entire family of them, depending on parameters a,b,cC, constrained by equation (20). I will suggestively denote them by [,]a,b,c to distinguish between them.

We know that the actual Lie bracket of g2 has to lie somewhere in this family, but which is it?

Suppose first that one of the parameters is zero: say b=0 (and thus c=0). This means that the parts (8)(10) of the bracket would vanish. In particular, C3(C3) would be a (nilpotent) ideal of the Lie algebra (same if a=0). But g2 is simple, meaning it cannot have any nontrivial ideals! So we have to take a,b,c to be nonzero.

An arbitrary choice for a,b,c satisfying (20) would for example be a=2,b=2,c=3. So let [,]:=[,]2,2,3. It is indeed the case that the brackets [,]a,b,c with a,b,c0 give rise to isomorphic Lie algebras – here is an isomorphism:8 (sl(3,C)C3(C3),[,])(sl(3,C)C3(C3),[,]a,b,c),(X,v,α)(X,2a2b3v,2ab23α). And since there’s no other option – by construction, the Lie bracket of g2 must occur somewhere in this family – these must be isomorphic to the simple Lie algebra g2. That’s it. End of story?

The root system of type G2

Recall that all of the above relied on the fact that sl(3,C) is a subalgebra of g2. One quite elegant way to see this is by inspecting the root system of type G2.

The most vital step in the classification of Cartan and Killing was to notice that a semisimple Lie algebra can be completely encoded in a combinatorial object called its root system. Let g be some semisimple9 Lie algebra, and let again ad denote its adjoint representation. First, one has to choose what is called a Cartan subalgebra: a subalgebra tg which is maximal among those with the property that for all ut, the endomorphism adugl(g) is diagonalizable.

Such a Cartan subalgebra turns out to always exist, and they all have the same dimension. The invariant dimt is called the rank of g. For example, a possible choice of Cartan subalgebra for g=sl(n,C) would be the subalgebra of diagonal matrices (since they satisfy the constraint that all diagonal entries sum to zero, the rank of sl(n,C) is n1). For g2, the rank is two.

Moreover every Cartan algebra t is abelian. The Jacobi identity implies that the adu, ut, all commute – thus they are simultaneously diagonalizable! This proves the root space decomposition: (21)g=tαRgα, where the gα are the simultaneous eigenspaces for adt, called root spaces. We can write them as gα={xg|ut, [u,x]=α(u)x}, for certain linear functionals αt called roots (if they are nonzero). The finite set Rt of all roots occurring in (21) is called the root system of g, and it does not essentially depend on the choice of t.

The monumental achievement of Killing and Cartan was to develop the theory of root systems, to show that every semisimple Lie algebra is determined by its root system, and to classify the root systems! Each one is a product of simple root systems, which in turn come in four infinite families An,Bn,Cn,Dn (corresponding to the classical Lie algebras sl(n+1,C), so(2n+1,C), sp(2n,C), so(2n,C), respectively), and five exceptions E6,E7,E8,F4,G2 (corresponding to the exceptional Lie algebras, of which g2 is the smallest).

Here is the root system of type G2:

For this depiction we have utilized that all roots lie in a real subspace of t. They also span a lattice of rank equal to dimt. In the case of g2, this means that the root system fits inside a plane. As you can see, there are six long and six short roots10.

Let us now take a look at the root system of sl(3,C) (of type A2):

Notice that the G2 root system looks like two superimposed copies of the A2 root system! Take now the Cartan subalgebra of g2 together with the root spaces corresponding only to the long roots (now marked in red), (22)h:=tα long rootgαg2.

In a semisimple Lie algebra g, the root spaces always satisfy [gα,gβ]gα+β, where g0=t and gα+β=0 if α+β is neither zero nor a root. In the above picture, a sum of long roots is never a root, and as a consequence h is a subalgebra of g2. However there are some short roots summing to long roots – so if we had used short instead of long roots, h would not be closed under the Lie bracket.

Now the subalgebra hg2 is isomorphic to sl(3,C). Why? Because, pretty much by definition, its root space decomposition is precisely (22), and the root system determines the isomorphism type!

Constructions of G2 from other subalgebras

In general, not every subalgebra of a semisimple Lie algebra g is visible from its root system. But it is the case for sl(3,C)g2, and for another subalgebra as well: one isomorphic to sl(2,C)sl(2,C).

The (complex) Lie algebra sl(2,C) is of type A1, and its root system is pretty boring:

For a direct sum of Lie algebras, the root system is just the Cartesian product of the root system of the factors:

If you squish it a bit, it fits inside the root system of type G2, and as above one may check that it defines a subalgebra. Again, the roots that we identify with roots of sl(2,C)sl(2,C) are marked in red:

If you wonder what the branching of the adjoint representation to this subalgebra looks like, here you go: g2sl(A)sl(B)(ASym3B). Here A and B stand for copies of C2, just so we can distinguish the sl(2,C)’s and their representations.

One thing to mention about this subalgebra that it corresponds to an so(4) sitting inside the compact real g2, and the quotient G2/SO(4) is a symmetric space! This implies11 that the only missing part of the bracket is (ASym3B)×(ASym3B)sl(A)sl(B). I haven’t yet reconstructed the Lie bracket, but it must be possible somehow – I’ll leave it as an exercise for the inclined reader.

The subalgebras sl(3,C) and sl(A)sl(B) are both maximal in g2. Another maximal subalgebra of g2, this time only of rank 1, is the principal subalgebra sl(2,C)irr. The branching looks like this: g2=sl(2,C)irrSym10C2 (yes, that is a power of ten).

The sl(2,C)irr-invariant reconstruction of the Lie bracket on g2 is briefly summarized in §3.9 of the article Reductive homogeneous spaces of the compact Lie group G2 by Draper and Palomo.12 It uses bilinear operations called transvections13 SymmC2×SymnC2Symm+n2qC2. In an article of Bremner and Hentzel,14 these transvections are even used to construct the octonionic multiplication!15 And I suspect they might also help with the sl(A)sl(B)-case. But that is a story for another day.

This was a long post. Time to rest.

Now I am become sleepy, the goer to bed.

Footnotes

  1. The story of how g2 was discovered and how the Cartan–Killing classification came to be is fascinating. Two great accounts are given in:

    I. Agricola: Old and new on the exceptional group G2. Notices Amer. Math. Soc. 55 (8), 922-929 (2008);

    A. J. Coleman: The greatest mathematical paper of all time, The Mathematical Intelligencer 11, 29–38 (1989). 

  2. The octonions are the last of the four real division algebras (R,C,H,O), and the only non-associative one. They are called “octonions” because they have dimension 8 over R. It is said that they are responsible for the existence of many “exceptional” or “sporadic” objects in mathematics – that is, objects which appear in classifications as more or less isolated entities, without belonging to an infinite family of related objects. A by now standard reference on the octonions and their consequences is:

    J. C. Baez: The Octonions, Bull. Amer. Math. Soc. 39, 145-205 (2002). Errata in Bull. Amer. Math. Soc. 42, 213 (2005). 

  3. Here’s roughly how to do it: Let x be some imaginary unit octonion, and let H=StabG2(x) be the stabilizer of x inside G2. Then H must preserve the 6-dimensional real subspace V:=xImO, and is determined by its action on it. That is, it injects into GL(6,R). Now it is a fact that algebra automorphisms of O preserve the inner product, that (left-)multiplication by x is a complex structure on V, which is preserved by H, and that the canonical three-form ω(u,v,w):=uv,w restricted to V is a holomorphic volume form. Thus HO(6)SL(3,C)=SU(3).

    To see the reverse inclusion, one can either calculate that every element of SU(3) gives an automorphism of O preserving x. Or, more elegantly, one may use the geometric fact that G2 acts transitively on the 6-sphere (the unit sphere in ImO), thus the stabilizer of a point must have dimension 146=8, which is that of SU(3). Since SU(3) is already connected, necessarily H=SU(3)

  4. I’ve often seen discussions on how to interpret the Jacobi identity. In my opinion, this is the simplest and most useful algebraic interpretation; to get a geometric one, we integrate this one twice and see that Jacobi infinitesimally encodes conjugation being a group action. 

  5. As a matter of fact, every representation of G2 is self-dual, but I forgot how to prove it. 

  6. This particular construction of the bracket of g2 is thoroughly detailed in §22.2 of my most prized possession:

    W. Fulton, J. Harris: Representation Theory: A First Course, Graduate Texts in Mathematics 129, Springer (2004).

    However, it discusses first the root system of g2 and uses it to infer the bracket, while this post tries to showcase the construction purely intrinsically. 

  7. This way of dividing differential forms is legitimate since they live in a one-dimensional vector space. Now there are actually people who use this as a justification to argue that of course, dfdx is a fraction (if f is a differentiable function of one variable). While technically true once one has jumped through the hoop of learning exterior calculus, I’ll leave it to you to decide whether this is a good didactical approach for first-time students of (ordinary) calculus… 

  8. Oh yeah, complex numbers, right. The cube roots have to be chosen such that a2b3ab23=ab

  9. Similar to groups, there are basically two “worlds” of Lie algebras: the solvable ones and the semisimple ones. A Lie algebra g is called semisimple if g has no solvable ideals. By the Levi decomposition theorem every Lie algebra over C can be written as a semidirect product of a semisimple subalgebra and a solvable ideal. Every semisimple Lie algebra is isomorphic to a sum of simple ideals (simple = no nontrivial ideals at all). 

  10. Don’t worry, there exists a canonical inner product on the root lattice making this precise. This allows us to think of a root system as living in some Euclidean space. 

  11. Symmetric spaces are the best-behaved homogeneous spaces, in a sense. Roughly, a symmetric space is a manifold which has a reflection symmetry through each point. This implies that it has a transitive group G of symmetries and can thus be written as a homogeneous space G/K, where K is the stabilizer of a point. If G/K is a symmetric space, with a K-invariant decomposition of the adjoint representation g=kp, then the bracket relation [p,p]k is satisfied. Conversely, any homogeneous space with this property is symmetric. 

  12. C. Draper, F. J. Palomo: Reductive homogeneous spaces of the compact Lie group G2, in: Non-Associative Algebras and Related Topics NAART II, Springer Proceedings in Mathematics & Statistics 427, Springer, 2023. 

  13. J. Dixmier: Certaines algèbres non associatives simples définies par la transvection des formes binaires, J. Reine Angew. Math. 346, 110–128 (1984). 

  14. M. Bremner, I. Hentzel: Invariant nonassociative algebra structures on irreducible representations of simple Lie algebras, Experiment. Math. 13 (2), 231-256 (2004). 

  15. How the principal subalgebra sl(2,C)irr, or rather its real form so(3)irr, fits together with the octonion multiplication, resp. the cross product on R7, has also been mused about in the n-Category Café: see here, here and here. Thanks to John Baez for taking interest in this question!